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Veterinary toxicology has grown into a multifaceted discipline that utilizes many diverse sources of toxicologic information. Veterinary toxicologists can be involved in basic toxicology research, clinical toxicology, regulatory toxicology, chemical risk assessment and chemical food safety in private, academic, clinical, government, and commercial settings, among others. Like many areas of science, veterinary toxicology information is being generated at rates much higher than most professionals can access it and incorporate its principles into practice.

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Dairy science focuses on the production and manufacturing of all dairy products, including milk. Entering this field requires knowledge of animal nutrition, reproduction, lactation and business. Dairy scientists must be able to produce a healthy dairy herd, inspect dairy products and assist with dairy farm management. Dairy science focuses on the production and manufacturing of all dairy products, including milk. Entering this field requires knowledge of animal nutrition, reproduction, lactation and business. Dairy scientists must be able to produce a healthy dairy herd, inspect dairy products and assist with dairy farm management.

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Aquatic animal diseases. Infection and disease in aquatic animals is normal, but can become severe under certain conditions. Such conditions can include the introduction of new diseases to a population; or conditions that promote disease, such as host animal stress. It is important that aquatic animal diseases are identified early to protect the sustainability of commercial and recreational fisheries, the productivity of aquaculture industries, access to international markets for Australian seafood industries, and aquatic environments.

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Swine are commonly used in experimental surgery because of anatomic and physiologic similarity to humans in many models. Advantages to the use of pigs in the laboratory include low cost, ready availability, and ease of acclimation to the laboratory. Disadvantages include the uncooperative nature of pigs with respect to most clinical procedures, limited number of intravenous access sites, and relative difficulty of endotracheal intubation Because animals larger than 100 kg are difficult to handle in the laboratory, selective breeding has produced several types of miniature swine for research. The Gottingen minipigs and the Yucatan micropigs achieve a maximum bodyweight of 35–55 kg at 2 years of age. The Hanford and Yucatan minipigs are somewhat larger, and weigh 70–90 kg at 2 years of age. By contrast, adult crossbred farm pigs weigh 90–110 kg at 6 months of age, and 200–300 kg at 2 years of age (Bollen et al., 2000; Swindle, 2007). Juvenile crossbred farm pigs are less expensive than minipigs or micropigs, and are often used for short-term surgical studies.

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Antibiotic resistance is the ability of bacteria to resist the effects of an antibiotic. This means that bacteria are not killed by the antibiotic and can continue to grow. About one in five resistant infections are caused by germs, such as Salmonella and Campylobacter, from food and animals. Antibiotics are medicines that kill bacteria.  They are extremely important in treating serious bacterial infections in people.  However, bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics when these drugs are given unnecessarily to people or animals who don’t require them.  Improving antibiotic prescribing and use is critical to ensure that bacteria don’t become resistant to antibiotics. Prescribers should only treat people and animals with antibiotics when they need them for medically sound reasons. All humans and animals have bacteria in their gut. When they are given antibiotics, many of these bacteria are killed, but the resistant ones may survive and multiply. This is why the responsible use of antibiotics is so important in both humans and animals.

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A forensic pathologist is a physician who specializes in determining the time, manner, and cause of death. Dr. Adam Stern, a board-certified pathologist at the University of Illinois Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, specializes in veterinary forensics.“In veterinary forensics, medical expertise is used to gather evidence applicable in civil and criminal court cases, as well as insurance company investigations, that involve animals,” says Dr. Stern. Animal Crime Investigation: He says that animals may play one of three roles: the victim, the perpetrator, or a witness. All too frequently, heartbreaking cases of animal abuse and neglect, where animals are victims, grab the headlines. In these situations, Dr. Stern may be asked to perform a forensic necropsy on a deceased animal to verify cause of death and may be asked to testify in court regarding the findings.Cases in which animals are perpetrators of the crime, such as dog bite cases, are also widely publicized. Dr. Stern recalls an unusual and complicated case that occurred in 2015 in Casey, Ill., where a dog was both a victim and, technically, a perpetrator.

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Parakeratosis is a zinc-responsive dermatosis usually observed in 2- to 4-month-old swine. Pigs not allowed access to soil or not supplemented with zinc are more likely to have parakeratosis. The disease is caused by a relative deficiency of zinc. The deficiency is usually caused by feeding an unbalanced diet that has one or more of the following features: excessive calcium; excessive phytic acid (sometimes present in soybean protein); or a low concentration of essential fatty acids. These features all adversely affect availability of dietary zinc. In addition, enteric pathogens or changes in intestinal flora can adversely influence zinc absorption. Parakeratosis most often is caused by consumption of excessive calcium. Affected pigs show few signs of illness other than skin lesions and reduced growth rate. Initial lesions appear as reddened macules and papules on the ventrolateral abdomen and medial surface of the thighs; these lesions often go unobserved. The lesions are slowly covered by thick, roughened scales and crusts. More obvious lesions soon become apparent on the lower legs and on the dorsum. Lesions sometimes can be seen around the eyes, ears, snout and tail and eventually may become generalized. Affected areas of the skin are hyperkeratotic and there may be fissuring of the epidermis with secondary infection of the fissures. A unique feature occasionally seen is a focal or diffuse hyperkeratosis on the tongue. Parakeratosis is a microscopic feature of affected epidermis and gives this dermatosis its name. Parakeratosis must be differentiated from sarcoptic mange and greasy pig disease (exudative dermatitis). Parakeratosis is nonpruritic whereas sarcoptic mange is pruritic. Greasy pig disease tends to occur in younger, smaller pigs. Pigs with parakeratosis will recover if excessive calcium is removed from the ration and it is properly supplemented with zinc. Most good commercial or carefully compounded rations now are supplemented with adequate levels of zinc salts. Although once common, parakeratosis seldom occurs today unless a feed mixing error occurs.

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Animal studies is a recently recognized field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways. Scholars who engage in animal studies may be formally trained in a number of diverse fields, including geography, art history, anthropology, biology, film studies, geography, history, psychology, literary studies, museology, philosophy, communication, and sociology. They may engage with questions about literal animals, or about notions of “animality” or “brutality,” employing various theoretical perspectives, including feminism, Marxist theory, and queer theory. Using these perspectives, those who engage in animal studies seek to understand both human-animal relations now and in the past, and to understand animals as beings-in-themselves, separate from our knowledge of them. Because the field is still developing, scholars and others have some freedom to define their own criteria about what issues may structure the field. In part, animal studies developed out of the animal liberation movement and was grounded in ethical questions about co-existence with other species: whether it is moral to eat animals, to do scientific research on animals for human benefit, and so on. Animal studies scholars who explore the field from an ethical perspective frequently cite Australian philosopher Peter Singer’s 1975 work, Animal Liberation, as a founding document in animal studies. Singer’s work followed Jeremy Bentham’s by trying to expand utilitarian questions about pleasure and pain beyond humans to other sentient creatures.

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A wildlife biologist studies animals and their behavior along with the role each animal plays in its natural habitat. The duties of a wildlife biologist can include: developing and conducting experiments/studies on animals in their natural habitats, studying the characteristics of animals such as their interaction with different species, their reproductive and movement patterns, the dynamic with in a population, and the transmission of diseases. Wildlife biologists can also play important roles in managing and monitoring population dynamics to preserve certain species and/or environments. They observe how animals interact with one another as well as how they interact with humans. Some wildlife biologists study the impacts of human interference on an ecosystem.  Wildlife biologists can work with endangered species, advocate for preservation of wildlife, resolve issues pertaining to wildlife, and manage animal populations.

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In the United States Veterinary pharmacy is a field of pharmacy practice, in which veterinary pharmacists may compound medications, fill prescriptions, and manage drug therapies for animals. Veterinary pharmacists are licensed pharmacists who specialize in the distribution of medications for animals. This differs slightly from the title of “veterinary pharmacy specialist,” who might additionally work in consulting, research, and education for veterinary pharmacy. Regular pharmacists in a variety of settings come into play in the preparation and dispensing of animal medications as well. As veterinarians treat a wide variety of animals with a wide variety of products, pharmacists can help manage these treatments through their compounding and drug knowledge. Compounding is often necessary for animal patients, as they require different dosages and medication forms from humans. Through compounding, pharmacists can adjust a medication for an animal so it is more appealing in taste or appearance.  While there is currently no required veterinary pharmacy curriculum in place by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education, the American Veterinary Medical Association understands that some veterinary education might be beneficial to pharmacists as community pharmacies continue to supply animal medications.

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