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Gangrene, localized death of animal soft tissue, caused by prolonged interruption of the blood supply that may result from injury or infection. Diseases in which gangrene is prone to occur include arteriosclerosis, diabetes, Raynaud’s disease, thromboangiitis obliterans, and typhus. It also may occur after severe burns, freezing, or prolonged bed rest. Gangrene is differentiated as being either dry or moist. Dry gangrene results from a gradual decrease in the blood supply in the affected area, often an extremity. The diseased part may at first be discoloured and cold to the touch; later it becomes distinct from nearby healthy tissue, turning dark and dry. If the infection is confined to a small area, the diseased tissue may eventually dry up completely and fall off. Treatment involves improving the blood flow to the affected area. Moist gangrene develops when the blood supply is suddenly cut off, as by a severe burn or an arterial blood clot. Tissue that has not been destroyed by the trauma begins to leak fluids, which then foster the growth of bacteria. The affected area becomes swollen and discoloured and later becomes foul-smelling. If not treated, the infection can spread beyond the wound and cause death. The administration of antibiotics is the principal treatment, which may be supplemented by the removal of diseased tissue to stop the spread of the infection. A different and more virulent form, gas gangrene, is caused by infection with bacteria of the genus Clostridium, which grows only in the absence of oxygen. It typically develops in deep crushing or penetrating wounds, as in war wounds that are improperly cleansed; it may also be a sequel to an improperly performed induced abortion. Within three or four days the wound begins to exude brownish, foul-smelling pus. Numerous gas bubbles, produced by a toxin released by the bacteria, form under the skin. The toxin is extremely lethal, and if the affected area is not treated, the infection spreads rapidly, causing death. Treatment involves removing all dead and diseased tissue and administering antibiotics. In some instances a polyvalent antitoxin derived from horses is also given, and occasionally a severely affected limb is placed in a high-pressure oxygen chamber to inhibit the growth of bacteria.

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Cystinuria, hereditary error of metabolism characterized by the excessive excretion into the urine of four amino acids: cystine, lysine, arginine, and ornithine. The main clinical problem of cystinuria is the possibility of cystine stone formation in the kidney; unlike lysine, arginine, and ornithine, which are freely soluble, cystine is only slightly soluble in urine, and when urine volume decreases, particularly at night, this amino acid may form stones. These may be reduced or eliminated by forcing fluids, alkalization, or, in severe cases, dietary restriction of foods containing methionine and cystine. Cystinuria is believed to be caused by a genetic defect in the transport system of the kidney tubule, which normally reabsorbs the four amino acids into the body circulation. In some forms of cystinuria, intestinal transport may be similarly affected. It is estimated that approximately one in 600 persons excretes abnormally large quantities of cystine, which can be detected by a simple test. Cystinuria is transmitted by an autosomal recessive gene: unaffected carriers of the trait who mate may expect, on the basis of chance, to have one affected offspring out of four.

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Albinism, hereditary condition characterized by the absence of pigment in the eyes, skin, hair, scales, or feathers. Albino animals rarely survive in the wild because they lack the pigments that normally provide protective coloration and screen against the sun’s ultraviolet rays. Two major types of albinism are recognized: oculocutaneous albinism, which affects the skin, hair, and eyes and is subdivided into four main types, and ocular albinism, which affects only the eyes and occurs most commonly in a form known as Nettleship-Falls syndrome. Individuals with oculocutaneous albinism have milk-white skin and hair, though the skin may be slightly pinkish in colour owing to underlying blood vessels. Affected persons sunburn very easily and are thus more susceptible to skin cancers. In both oculocutaneous and ocular albinism, the iris of the eye typically appears pink, while the pupil itself appears red from light reflected by blood in the unpigmented choroid. Vision abnormalities such as astigmatism, nystagmus, and photophobia are common.

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Pentosuria, inborn error of carbohydrate metabolism, characterized by the excessive urinary excretion of the sugar xylitol. It is caused by a defect in the enzyme xylitol dehydrogenase, by which xylitol is normally metabolized. No disabilities are incurred, and no dietary or other measures are necessary. Reducing properties of the urine of affected individuals may lead to confusion with, and unnecessary treatment for, diabetes mellitus, which is not related to pentosuria. Pentosuria has been observed almost exclusively in persons of Jewish descent.

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Alkaptonuria, rare inherited disorder of protein metabolism, the primary distinguishing symptom of which is urine that turns black following exposure to air. It is characterized biochemically by an inability of the body to metabolize the amino acids tyrosine and phenylalanine. In the normal metabolic pathway of tyrosine, homogentisic acid is converted to maleylacetoacetate in the liver by the enzyme homogentisate 1, 2-dioxygenase. This enzyme is rendered inactive in individuals who have alkaptonuria, owing to mutation of the enzyme’s gene HGD. Except for a blackening of the urine due to the buildup and oxidation of homogentisic acid, this disorder has no clinical manifestations until the affected person is in his or her twenties or thirties, when deposits of ochre pigments begin to appear in various fibrous connective tissues of the body, giving rise to a condition known as onchronosis. The pigment, bound to collagen fibres in the deeper layers of joint cartilage and intervertebral disks, causes these tissues to lose their normal resiliency and become brittle. The erosion of the abnormal cartilage leads to a progressive degenerative disease of the joints, which usually becomes manifest by the fourth decade of life. Usually, the intervertebral disks become thinned and calcified first, and later the knees, shoulders, and hips are affected. Alkaptonuria is compatible with normal life expectancy. In some cases arteriosclerosis has been described; however, it is not known whether this is a manifestation of the disease or coincidental. No effective treatment is available for the underlying metabolic disorder.

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Metabolic disease, any of the diseases or disorders that disrupt normal metabolism, the process of converting food to energy on a cellular level. Thousands of enzymes participating in numerous interdependent metabolic pathways carry out this process. Metabolic diseases affect the ability of the cell to perform critical biochemical reactions that involve the processing or transport of proteins, carbohydrates, or lipids. Metabolic diseases are typically hereditary, yet most persons affected by them may appear healthy for days, months, or even years. The onset of symptoms usually occurs when the body’s metabolism comes under stress—for example, after prolonged fasting or during a febrile illness. For some metabolic disorders, it is possible to obtain prenatal diagnostic screening. Such analysis usually is offered to families who have previously had a child with a metabolic disease or who are in a defined ethnic group. Countries that perform screening for metabolic diseases at birth typically test for up to 10 different conditions. Tandem mass-spectrometry is a new technology that allows for the detection of multiple abnormal metabolites almost simultaneously, making it possible to add approximately 30 disorders to the list of conditions for which newborns may be tested. If an infant is known to have a metabolic disorder soon after birth, appropriate therapy can be started early, which may result in a better prognosis. Some metabolic disorders respond very well if treatment is introduced at an early age. However, others have no effective therapy and cause severe problems, despite early diagnosis. In the future, gene therapy may prove successful in the treatment of some of these diseases.

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Tularemia, acute infectious disease resembling plague, but much less severe. The causative agent is the gram-negative bacterium Francisella tularensis. The disease is primarily one of animals; human infections are incidental. It occurs naturally in many types of wildlife. In the United States the rabbit, especially the cottontail, is an important source of human infection, but other mammals, birds, and insects also spread the disease. Human cases in Sweden and Norway have been transmitted by hares; in the Soviet Union, by water rats. F. tularensis has been found in some natural water sources, causing incidences of the disease in animals. Tularemia can be spread to humans by the bite of an infected animal, by contact with blood or fine dust from the animal’s body during skinning or similar operations, by the ingestion of infected animal products that have not been properly cooked, or by the bite of an insect, most commonly a deerfly, Chrysops discalis. Various ticks of the genera Dermacentor, Haemaphysalis, Rhipicephalus, Amblyomma, and Ixodes may be largely responsible for maintenance of the animal infection. In addition, the infection is transmitted from the adult tick to the egg, and both larvae and nymphs are infectious and form an insect reservoir of infection.

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Bloodborne pathogens are microorganisms such as viruses or bacteria that are carried in blood and can cause disease. There are many different bloodborne pathogens including malaria, syphilis, and brucellosis, While this module will focus primarily on HBV and HIV, it is important to know which bloodborne pathogens (animals).

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Veterinary obstetrics are the obstetrical methods used in veterinary medicine, which are quite different from those of human medicine. Veterinary obstetrics is a branch of veterinary medicine that deals with medical and surgical care together with manipulations of the female animals in breeding, gestation, labor, purperium and care of the neonates.

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Badger, common name for any of several stout carnivores, most of them members of the weasel family, that are found in various parts of the world and are known for their burrowing ability. The species differ in size, habitat, and coloration, but all are nocturnal and possess anal scent glands, powerful jaws, and large, heavy claws on their forefeet, which are used to dig for food and construct underground dens. The American badger feeds mostly on rodents, but Old World species are omnivorous. Badgers are classified into six genera. Some, especially the American badger, are hunted for their pelts. Generally solitary, it feeds mainly on rodents, particularly ground squirrels, pocket gophers, mice, and voles. Other prey include insects, reptiles, and eggs of ground-nesting birds. Mostly nocturnal, American badgers spend the day inside a burrow often dug the night before. During the winter they sleep underground for long periods. To survive this period of fasting, they accumulate large amounts of body fat during late summer and autumn. Mating occurs during this time, but implantation of the zygote is delayed. Thus, although the young are born the following spring, true gestation is only six weeks.

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