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Pox disease, any of a complex of viral diseases in domestic animals, marked chiefly by eruptions of the skin and mucous membranes. Sheep pox and rabbit pox are spread by airborne infectious particles that are inhaled. Horse pox, fowl pox, and mouse pox usually are spread by skin contact. Cowpox (vaccinia) and pseudocowpox (paravaccinia), localized on the udder and teats of cows, are transmissible to human beings by skin contact. Horse pox (contagious pustular stomatitis) is now rare. Swine pox, of two types, is prevalent but rarely fatal.

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Hog cholera, also called swine fever or classical swine fever, serious and often fatal viral disease of swine. Characterized by high fever and exhaustion, the disease is transmitted from infected pigs via numerous carrier agents, including vehicles in which pigs are conveyed from place to place, dealers who journey from farm to farm, and farm attendants. The virus may be present in garbage used for swine feed but is destroyed by cooking. Four days to three weeks after exposure, the disease begins with fever. Subsequent signs vary somewhat: loss of appetite, general depression and withdrawal from other animals, reddened and draining eyes, vomiting, constipation or diarrhea, and coughing and difficulty in respiration. In many cases a skin rash develops; the mucous membrane of the mouth and throat may become inflamed and ulcerative. The animal lies about, moving reluctantly, sometimes with a staggering gait and an arched back; later it is unable to rise and becomes comatose. Administration of anti-hog-cholera serum in early stages of the disease may be effective, although recovery is rare. Death may occur within a few days or the illness may become chronic, the animal being a possible source of infection to other pigs. Control is mainly by vaccination.

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Bloat, also called hoven or ruminal tympany, disorder of ruminant animals involving distention of the rumen, the first of the four divisions of the stomach, with gas of fermentation. Bloated cattle are restless and noticeably uncomfortable and have distended left flanks. Bloat often occurs in cattle that have grazed young, lush legumes such as clover or ingested large amounts of concentrate rations. Though deaths have occurred, economic losses from bloat usually derive from reduction in milk production and weight-gain rate. Treatment involves administration of antifoaming agents and relief of pressure by passage of a stomach tube via the esophagus.

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Babesiosis, also spelled babesiasis, also called piroplasmosis, any of a group of tick-borne diseases of animals caused by species of Babesia, protozoans that destroy red blood cells and thereby cause anemia.  Cattle tick fever, from B. bigemina, occurs in cattle, buffalo, and zebu. Other Babesia species attack cattle, sheep, goats, horses, donkeys, swine, and dogs. Wild animals such as deer, wolves, foxes, wildcats, and pumas are susceptible to infections from certain Babesia species. Mortality depends on the pest species and the resistance of the host; native animals often contract mild cases and recover with immunity. Various drugs can be used to clear the blood of the parasites. Because Babesia species are both host and vector specific, tick control plays an important role in reducing incidence.

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Trichinosis, also called trichinellosis or trichiniasis, disorder resulting from infestation with the small roundworm Trichinella spiralis, commonly acquired by humans by the eating of undercooked pork containing encapsulated larvae of the parasite. In the stomach and small intestine, the capsular coating is digested, and the liberated larvae invade the mucosal lining of the small intestine, becoming adults within a week. After fertilization the female worm deposits larvae into the mucosa and sometimes directly into the lymph vessels, from which the larvae reach the blood and are carried to all parts of the body, notably the burrows of skeletal muscles, where they reach the encapsulation stage. The muscles most often invaded are those of the diaphragm, eyes, neck, throat, larynx, and tongue. The larval capsules, or cysts, may remain alive in the muscles for years, eventually becoming calcified. Unless the muscle of the host animal is eaten by another animal, the trichinella dies in the cyst and the cyst calcifies. If the host animal is eaten, the cycle begins again.

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Anthelmintic, any drug that acts against infections caused by parasitic worms. Helminths can be divided into three groups: cestodes, or tapeworms; nematodes, or roundworms; and trematodes, or flukes. The helminths differ from other infectious organisms in that they have a complex body structure. They are multicellular and have partial or complete organ systems (e.g., muscular, nervous, digestive, and reproductive). Several of the drugs used to treat worm infections affect the nervous system of the parasite and result in muscle paralysis. Other drugs affect the uptake of glucose and thus energy stores. All are chemical agents and are generally administered orally, and many are used in both human and veterinary medicine. No anthelmintic, however, is completely effective, completely without toxic effect upon the host, or equally active against all worms.

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Phenothiazine, widely used anthelmintic in veterinary medicine. Phenothiazine is an organic compound effective against a broad range of parasites in cattle, horses, poultry, sheep, and swine. A highly toxic drug, it is not recommended for human use and is not effective in dogs or cats. Some of the most useful antipsychotic drugs are derivatives of phenothiazine. They are widely used to treat the symptoms of persons suffering from schizophrenia, psychotic depression, the manic phase of manic-depression, and organic psychoses. The phenothiazines suppress or eliminate such symptoms as hallucinations, delusions, agitation, and disordered thinking. The drugs apparently achieve their tranquillizing effect by blocking the transmission of dopamine in the brain. Among the most widely used phenothiazines are chlorpromazine, thioridazine, and trifluoperazine.

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Hemagglutinin, any of a group of naturally occurring glycoproteins that cause red blood cells to agglutinate, or clump together. These substances are found in invertebrates, and certain microorganisms. Among the best-characterized hemagglutinins are those that occur as surface antigens on viruses in the family Orthomyxoviridae, which contains the influenza viruses, and the family Paramyxoviridae, which contains a number of pathogenic viruses, including those that cause measles. The presence of hemagglutinin on influenza viruses enables the viruses to bind to sialic acid on the surfaces of cells in host animals. This binding facilitates host infection, thereby contributing to the virulence of the viruses. A similar mechanism is believed to contribute to the infectious nature of measles virus. Viral hemagglutinin stimulates the production of antibodies by the host’s immune system. These antibodies bind to a portion of the hemagglutinin antigen known as an epitope, thereby tagging the virus for immune destruction. In the case of influenza viruses, mutations in the genes encoding hemagglutinin can give rise to new epitopes that enable the viruses to escape antibody recognition. These mutations may result from antigenic drift or antigenic shift-processes that can give rise to influenza viruses capable of causing epidemics or pandemics.

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Neuraminidase, also called sialidase, any of a group of enzymes that cleave sialic acid, a carbohydrate occurring on the surfaces of cells in animals. Antigenic neuraminidases occurring on influenza viruses have been well characterized. Following host-cell infection, these viruses manipulate the cell machinery to replicate themselves. When the replicated viruses bud from the host cells, they remain attached to the host-cell surface by binding between hemagglutinin and sialic acid. Neuraminidase cleaves the sialic acid molecule, thereby freeing the virus to infect other cells in the host organism. Antibodies against neuraminidase that are generated by the host’s immune system following infection bind to a portion of the neuraminidase antigen known as an epitope. This binding targets the virus particles for immune destruction. The genes encoding the neuraminidases of influenza viruses are highly susceptible to genetic mutations that modify the epitopes of the antigen. The emergence of a new neuraminidase epitope enables an influenza virus to escape immune recognition, at least until new, matching antibodies have been generated against it. Genetic alterations affecting neuraminidase may arise through antigenic drift or antigenic shift-processes that can give rise to influenza viruses capable of causing epidemics or pandemics. There are 9 different forms of neuraminidase, designated N1 through N9, that are associated with influenza type A viruses.

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Gastropods are among the few groups of animals to have become successful in all three major habitats: the ocean, fresh waters, and land. A few gastropod types are used as food, and several different species may be used in the preparation of escargot. Very few gastropod species transmit animal diseases; however, the flukes that cause human schistosomiasis use gastropods as intermediate hosts. The shells of some species are used as ornaments or in making jewelry. Some gastropods are scavengers, feeding on dead plant or animal matter; others are predators; some are herbivores, feeding on algae or plant material; and a few species are external or internal parasites of other invertebrates.

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