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Osteoporosis is a nonspecific term referring to a condition that is characterized by quantitative loss of bone, that is, atrophy of bone. The bone that is present is entirely normal, since the organic and inorganic phases diminish in equal proportion. The reduced amount of bone is manifested by thinning of the cortex or reduced number and caliber of cancerous trabeculae, or more commonly both. Thus, affected bones are thin, porous, and brittle. The volume of bone remains constant, however. The only bone disease in humans classified as osteoporosis is that condition seen in elderly men and women in which the usual complaint is back pain of insidious or sudden onset, such as following injury, and collapse of vertebral bodies causing kyphosis. It is the most important factor in the incidence of hip disease in the aged. Aegeter and Kirkpatrick state this is the only type of reduction in bone mass that is properly called osteoporosis and the term osteoporosis properly refers to no other bone disease. The cause of osteoporosis is unknown. A reduction in bone mass can be seen in primary hyperparathyroidism, nutritional hyperparathyroidism, renal secondary hyperparathyroidism, pseudohyperparathyroidism, hyperthyroidism, acromegaly, hepatic toxicity, immobilization of a limb, long-term tetraplegia, multiple myeloma, as a result of the administration of certain anticonvulsant drugs, and in hyperadrenocorticism. However, the reduction in bone mass is seen only secondarily to the primary condition, hence the term secondary osteoporosis should be used.

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Hymenostome, any member of the evenly ciliated protozoan order Hymenostomatida. Included in this order are the genus Paramecium, often used in laboratory studies, and the even more widely studied genus Tetrahymena, which can be easily cultured for biochemical and physiological research. The hymenostomes are characterized by a ventral mouth cavity, which is lined by three membranelles of fused cilia on one side and by an undulating membrane on the other side. In the genus Pleuronema the membrane is greatly enlarged to form a saclike food scoop. The order also contains parasites, such as the genus Ichthyophthirius, which attacks the skin of freshwater and aquarium fishes. The numerous, mostly marine species now known as the scuticociliates are classified here as well.

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Thiabendazole, which is structurally related to albendazole and mebendazole, is used primarily for the treatment of several nematodes of cattle, horses, and sheep. Dithiazanine is another nematode anthelmintic used in veterinary medicine; it is effective against heartworms and threadworms. Levamisole is used in the treatment of lungworm infections in cattle. Phenothiazine, is still used against the wireworm of sheep and cattle. Hygromycin is an antibiotic that may also be used as an anthelmintic in the form of a feed additive to eliminate or reduce ascarids, nodular worms, and whipworms of swine, and the large roundworms and cecal worms of poultry.

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Among terrestrial vertebrates, the start of the Eocene is marked by the appearance of two new groups of animals: the perissodactyls, or odd-toed ungulates, and the artiodactyls, or even-toed ungulates. The perissodactyls include the horses, rhinoceroses, and tapirs; among the artiodactyls are the deer, cattle, and sheep. An early horse ancestor, the dawn horse, known in North America as Eohippus, is among the fossil perissodactyls found in the lower Eocene rocks of both North America and Europe. Artiodactyls, rare during the early Eocene, became abundant later in the epoch.

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Heliozoan, any member of the protozoan class Heliozoea. Heliozoans are spherical and predominantly freshwater and are found either floating or stalked. They are frequently enveloped by a shell composed of silica or organic material secreted by the organism in the form of scales or pieces in a gelatinous covering. The secretions exhibit a wide variety of shapes, which may help in species identification. The numerous radiating cytoplasmic masses, called pseudopodia, are used more for capturing food than for locomotion. Heliozoans ingest protozoans, algae, and other small organisms and reproduce asexually by binary fission or by budding. Flagellated forms, which may be gametes, have been described in several genera. Actinophrys sol is a common species often referred to as the sun animalcule. Acanthocystis turfacea is a similar species commonly called the green sun animalcule because its body is coloured by harmless symbiotic green algae. Actinosphaerium species are multinucleate.

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Necrosis, the death of cells or tissues, takes place if the blood supply to tissues is restricted; poisons produced by microbes, chemical poisons, and extreme heat or electricity also may cause necrosis. The rotting of the dead tissue is known as gangrene. Atrophy of animal tissue involves a process of tissue wasting, in which a decrease occurs in the size or number of functional cells. Hypertrophy-an increase in the size of the cells in a tissue or an organ occurs in heart muscle during diseases involving the heart valves, in certain pneumonias, and in some diseases of the endocrine glands. Aplasia is the term used when an entire organ is missing from an animal; hypoplasia indicates arrested or incomplete development of an organ, and hyperplasia an increase in the production of the number of cells—e.g., the persistent callus that forms on the elbows of some dogs. Metaplasia is used to describe the change of one cell type into another; it may occur in chronic irritation of tissues and in certain cancerous tumours.

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The condition in which mucus, a secretion of mucous membranes lining the inside surfaces of organs, is produced in excess and accumulates in greater than normal amounts is referred to as mucoid degeneration. Major causes of this condition include chronic irritation of mucous membranes and certain mucus-producing tumours. Abnormal amounts of glycogen, which is the principal storage carbohydrate of animals, may occur in the liver as a result of certain inherited diseases of animals; the condition is known as glycogen infiltration. The abnormal deposition of calcium salts, which is known as hypercalcification, may occur as a result of several diseases involving the blood vessels and the heart, the urinary system, the gallbladder, and the bonelike tissue called cartilage. Pigments from coal dust or asbestos dust may infiltrate the lungs of certain dogs in two types of lung disease: anthracosis and asbestosis. Abnormal amounts of iron-containing coloured molecules resulting from the breakdown of hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein of red blood cells, are often deposited in the liver and the spleen after diseases that involve excessive breakdown of red blood cells. A dark-coloured molecule occurs abnormally in the livers of certain sheep suffering from Dubin–Johnson syndrome and in certain tumours called melanomas. Uric acid infiltration, which occurs in poultry, is characterized by the deposition of uric acid salts.

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Radiolarian, any protozoan of the class Polycystinea, found in the upper layers of all oceans. Radiolarians, which are mostly spherically symmetrical, are known for their complex and beautifully sculptured, though minute, skeletons, referred to as tests. Usually composed of silica, the test is elaborately perforated in a variety of patterns, forming a series either of lattice like plates or of loose needle-shaped spicules. Pseudopodia extend through the perforated skeleton. A chitinous central capsule encloses the nuclei and divides the cytoplasm into two zones. The outer cytoplasm contains many vacuoles that control the organism’s buoyancy. Asexual reproduction is by budding, binary fission, or multiple fission. Generally, the skeleton divides, and each daughter cell regenerates the missing half. In some cases, however, one daughter cell escapes and develops an entirely new shell, the other daughter remaining within the parent skeleton.

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Morphology, in biology, the study of the size, shape, and structure of animals, plants, and microorganisms and of the relationships of their constituent parts. The term refers to the general aspects of biological form and arrangement of the parts of a plant or an animal. The term anatomy also refers to the study of biological structure but usually suggests study of the details of either gross or microscopic structure. In practice, however, the two terms are used almost synonymously. Typically, morphology is contrasted with physiology, which deals with studies of the functions of organisms and their parts; function and structure are so closely interrelated, however, that their separation is somewhat artificial. Morphologists were originally concerned with the bones, muscles, blood vessels, and nerves comprised by the bodies of animals and the roots, stems, leaves, and flower parts comprised by the bodies of higher plants. The development of the light microscope made possible the examination of some structural details of individual tissues and single cells; the development of the electron microscope and of methods for preparing ultrathin sections of tissues created an entirely new aspect of morphology-that involving the detailed structure of cells. Electron microscopy has gradually revealed the amazing complexity of the many structures of the cells of plants and animals. Other physical techniques have permitted biologists to investigate the morphology of complex molecules such as hemoglobin, the gas-carrying protein of blood, and deoxyribonucleic acid, of which most genes are composed. Thus, morphology encompasses the study of biological structures over a tremendous range of sizes, from the macroscopic to the molecular.

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Nagana, a form of the disease trypanosomiasis, occurring chiefly in cattle and horses and caused by several species of the protozoan Trypanosoma. The disease, which occurs is carried from animal to animal chiefly by tsetse flies. Signs of infection include fever, muscular wasting, anemia, and swelling of tissues. There is discharge from eyes and nose. First the hindlegs and then other parts of the body become paralyzed. The spleen, lymph nodes, and liver become enlarged, and the spinal cord is affected.

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