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Adrenaline is the body’s activator, and is released in response to anxiety, exercise, or fear. When an animal is threatened, the options are usually either to stand its ground and fight, or run away as fast as possible. Both responses would require extra supplies of blood and oxygen in the muscles. Adrenaline, also known as epinephrine, is a hormone and medication. Adrenaline is normally produced by both the adrenal glands and a small number of neurons in the medulla oblongata where it acts as a neurotransmitter involved in regulating visceral functions (e.g., respiration). It plays an important role in the fight-or-flight response by increasing blood flow to muscles, output of the heart, pupil dilation response, and blood sugar level. It does this by binding to alpha and beta receptors.

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Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a common disorder that describes recurrent collapse of the upper airway during sleep. Animal models have been pivotal to the understanding of OSA pathogenesis, consequences, and treatment. OSA is associated with significant cardiovascular, metabolic, and neurocognitive consequences. Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) describes recurrent complete (apnea) or partial (hypopnea) collapse of the upper airway during sleep. The estimated prevalence of OSA in North America is 20–30% in males and 10–15% in females (1, 2), a figure rapidly on the rise with obesity. Additional risk factors for OSA include advanced age, male sex, and craniofacial or upper airway soft tissue abnormalities. During sleep, efforts of breathing against an occluded upper airway lead to impaired gas exchange, swings in intrathoracic pressure, and sleep fragmentation (SF). OSA severity is quantified by the apnea–hypopnea index (AHI), which measures the frequency of disordered events.

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Abscesses in dogs can be defined as pockets of pus somewhere in the body, commonly including the skin, mouth, between the toes, or within the body cavity. There are many types of abscesses in dogs and they can range from small and superficial to large and dangerous. Usually they will appear in dogs as points of sudden, painful swelling that can be firm to touch or soft and jelly-like. However, some form in dogs internally or deep within the tissue and do not appear on the outside of the skin.Some abscesses will rupture and leak a bad-smelling, pus-filled fluid.Abscesses have many potential causes but typically form when a wound becomes infected with bacteria. Pasteurella multocida is the bacteria that most commonly causes skin infections in dogs. Staphylococcus intermedius is another bacteria that causes abscesses, and it can usually be treated with ointments. Abscesses form in response to these bacteria and many others when a wound goes untreated.

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Bladder stones are a collection of minerals and other materials. Most bladder stones in dogs are made from struvite, calcium oxalate, urate, or cystine crystals. This is because they are formulated to make the dog produce more acidic urine than they would otherwise in order to break down the stone. Bladder stones start out small but over time can grow in number and/or size. Dogs with bladder stones typically have some or all of the following symptoms: Urinary accidents, Frequent attempts to urinate without producing much urine, Straining to urinate, Discolored urine, Licking around the urinary opening.These clinical signs can be seen with other diseases affecting the urinary tract (infections or tumors, for example), so the diagnosis of bladder stones has to be confirmed with either an X-ray or ultrasound.

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Alopecia is extremely noticeable, and is characterized as a varied or a symmetrical hair loss. It may also be seen as bald circles, accompanied by crusting and inflammation around the area. Some dogs suffering from alopecia have scaling of the skin. One of the most common causes of alopecia is mange, which caused by the mite Demodex. Hair loss can also occurs when there is a disruption in the growth of hair follicles, often from infection, trauma, an immune disease, or endocrine system abnormalities. If there are multiple missing patches of hair, it could be associated with an inflammation of the hair follicle. A more widespread area of hair loss, meanwhile, may indicate a more specific disease pattern.

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Antibiotic use in animals is approved for treatment of sick animals. The FDA has approved responsible use of antibiotics to control disease spread in a population of animals when members of the population are sick, prevent spread of disease for at-risk animals, and treat infected animals.

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An allergen is a usually harmless substance capable of triggering a response that starts in the immune system and results in an allergic reaction. In addition to pollen, other common allergens include dust mites, animal dander, mold, medications, insect venoms and various foods.

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Cricopharyngeal Achalasia in Small Animals. Cricopharyngeal achalasia is characterized by inadequate relaxation of the cricopharyngeal muscle, which leads to a relative inability to swallow food or liquids. It is seen primarily as a congenital defect but is occasionally seen in adult dogs.

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Acarapis woodi mites live and reproduce in the tracheae of the bees. The symptoms of Acarapis woodi infestation were originally called by beekeepers as the Isle of Wight Disease, however it is now called Acarine, after the Subclass to which the mites belong. All mites are arachnids like spiders.

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Anorexia is a decrease or loss of appetite for food. While hunger is physically driven, appetite is mentally driven.” Decreased appetite and decreased food intake may indicate potentially life-threatening underlying conditions and should be taken seriously.” There are two types of anorexia: true anorexia and ‘pseudo-anorexia.’ Both result in decreased food intake, but a dog with pseudo-anorexia wants to eat (is hungry), but is unable to because of difficulty picking up, chewing, or swallowing food or some other cause (see below). Regardless of whether a dog is dealing with true or pseudo-anorexia, decreased appetite and decreased food intake are outward signs that should be taken seriously. These signs may indicate potentially life-threatening underlying conditions. Poor appetite or refusal to eat is strongly associated with illness and is a common reason for dog owners to seek veterinary care.

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